8 snakes with the world's deadliest venom

Snakes are extremely dangerous species of reptiles and no doubt they appear among the most feared creatures on the planet. One significant feature about these limbless moving reptiles is their ability to eject toxic venoms from a bite. These venoms do posses  lethal threats to other organisms, thereby making the snake a very fearsome hunter in the wild. Trust me you  really don't want to mess around the snake's territory.

Out of the 3,500 snake species found on Earth, only 600 of them are actually capable of ejecting venoms from a bite. These venoms comes in different levels of lethality depending on the amount of toxin found in it. Studying about venoms is quite complex, and snake venom works differently on different creatures and sometimes different seasons. Due to this, several criteria has thus been adopted on different lists of the most venomous snakes.  Some lists look at "the most venomous snake bites", based on how many mice or humans one bite from a snake would kill. Other lists are more interested in the "most deadliest snakes" so they use the number of human deaths recorded each year from the snake.  However the standard way of measuring the degree of lethality posed by a snake's venom or otherwise known as it "toxicity" is from the median lethal dose(LD50). The median lethal dose or LD50 is the dose of venom needed to kill 50%(half) the members of a group of tested animals after a specified duration. The animal mostly used for this tests are the mice. A lower LD50 is an indication of increased toxicity. Some of the data drawn from the test results may be inaccurate due to the complexity of these tests and unextended investigation of species neurotoxins.

In our countdown list, we're going to highlight 8 of the most venomous snake species found on earth, taking all the above criteria into consideration.

Inland Taipan

When it comes to the amount of toxin found in a venom, the Inland Taipan is by far the most venomous snake in the world. Being nicknamed as the "fierce snake", a single bite from an Inland Taipan can deliver a maximum of 110mg of it venom, being so toxic enough to kill at least 100 adult humans or 250 thousand mice. Although being so venomous, it has less defensive disposition unlike it counterpart "the coastal Taipan"  and it  shy by nature. Hence very few humans have been bitten and no human death has ever been recorded from an Inland Taipan.

Statistical data

Average dose of venom ejected :  44mg

Maximum dose recorded             : 110mg

Median lethal dose for mice.       :  0.025mg/kg

Components of venom

neurotoxins, hemotoxins, myotoxins, nephrotoxins, haemorrhagin, hyaluronidase enzyme.

EASTERN BROWN SNAKE

A specie of extremely venomous snake found mostly in the eastern and central Australia and New Guinea.

The eastern brown snake is considered the second most venomous land snake, after the inland taipan based on it LD50 value in mice. It responsible for about 60% of snake bite death in Australia.

An average eastern brown snake can yield about 5mg dose of venom in a bite. Thus the quantity of venom produced is dependent on the size of snake, larger snakes produce more venom than smaller ones. However the highest recorded yield is 67mg.

The subcutaneous median lethal dose (LD50) for the common brown snake in 18 to 21 gram of mice is 0.053mg/kg.

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Top 10 Biggest Trees In The World

Have you ever wondered what the biggest trees in the world are? Or where they are located? If so, this article is for you. Today we are going to take a look at the top ten biggest trees in the world.

The world is a vast and wonderful place, with all sorts of different environments and ecosystems. Within these ecosystems stand some of the largest and oldest living things on the planet: trees.

Trees are some of the most impressive and diverse creatures in nature. With over 60 000 species, they come in a wide range of shapes, sizes, and colors. How they manage to grow, regrow, adapt and survive in the wild is truly astonishing.

Some trees are so big they can house entire ecosystems of plants, animals, and insects within their trunks or branches. Others have incredibly deep and vast root systems that can be explored for miles and some even manage to survive despite being completely hollow.

But what about trees that are the biggest of the big? Which trees are the biggest? And where can you find them?

Top 10 biggest trees in the world.

If we were to actually name the top 10 biggest trees in the world, only Giant Sequoias would make the list. And they would take up all ten spots!

However, it would seem unfair to leave out all other types of trees, so we have compiled a list of the top ten biggest trees in the world. This will consist of different tree species ranked based on their trunk volume.

So without further ado, here are ten of the biggest trees in the world:

1. General Sherman Tree - The biggest tree in the world based on trunk volume.

• Location: Sequoia National Park, California, USA
• Trunk volume: 52,508 cubic feet (1484.96 m³)
• Height: 275 feet (83.79 meters)
• Circumference: 102.68 feet (31.19 meters)
  
  
  

The General Sherman Tree is the largest tree by volume in existence. It's so tall and mighty that it was named after a Union General during the American civil war, William Tecumseh Sherman.

The giant sequoia lives up to its name of being huge too - measuring over 100 feet around! That makes it almost twice as big as any other ever measured on Earth. Even more impressive, this behemoth of a tree has been standing tall for over 2000 years.

Did you know? Despite having one enormous trunk, four massive branches, and two large ones splitting off from them near their tops, The General still manages an intimidating height of 275 feet into the sky above California's Sequoia National Park.

2. Grogan's Fault - The biggest coast redwood in the world.

• Location: Redwood National Park, California
• Trunk volume: 31,320 cubic feet (893.18 m³)
• Height: 379 feet (115.54 meters)
• Circumference at breast height: 33ft 11in (11.38m

Grogan's Fault is the biggest coast redwood in existence today. It is located in the Redwood National Park, California.

The tree has an enormous trunk volume of 31,320 cubic feet and a height of 379 feet. Grogan's Fault also sports a healthy girth measuring 33ft 11in around its base! This behemoth redwood was measured on April 29th, 2012 by Michael Taylor and Mario Vaden.

The coast redwood is the tallest tree species on earth and one of the fastest-growing too, with some individuals sprouting up to 365 feet in just 60 years! Grogan's Fault has quite a history, however - it was named after an Irishman called Pat Grogan who had lived down by its roots for many years. It is now part of the protected Redwood National Park.

Did you know? The bark of a coast redwood can grow up to one inch per year, making trees some of the fastest growing in the world.

3. Tāne Mahuta – The biggest hardwood tree in the world.

• Location: Waipoua Forest, Northland Region of New Zealand
• Trunk volume: 52,513 cubic feet (1485 m³) 
• Height: 379 feet (115.79 meters)

This particular Kauri has been nicknamed "Tāne Mahuta" which means "Lord of the Forest". The Tāne Mahuta is a giant hardwood tree located in Waipoua Forest, Northland Region of New Zealand. This tree is one of the biggest hardwoods in existence and has a trunk volume of 52,513 cubic feet.

It is 379ft in height and has a girth of 33ft 11in measured at breast height - this makes it an impressive and mighty tree! The Tāne Mahuta was given its name by the Maori people who are the indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand.

The Tāne Mahuta is a living monument and is protected by law in New Zealand. It is an important cultural icon for the Maori people.

The most impressive thing about Tāne Mahuta is its age; it has been standing for over 1400 years! As such, this giant kauri tree holds a special cultural and spiritual significance to both Māori people and Europeans alike who have come here from all around the world just to see it with their own eyes. In fact, some scientists think that Tane might be as old as 2000 or even 3000 years!

Did you know? At 379 feet tall, this is New Zealand's largest living creature – after humans! It also has a huge girth measuring 42ft around which makes up about half its total height above ground level. Scientists believe there are three further trunks hidden underground too– one at 315 feet, one at 130 feet, and another at 16ft!

4. Cheewhat Giant Tree - The largest living Western redcedar

• Location: Cheewhat Lake, Vancouver Island, British Columbia
• Trunk volume: 11,500 cubic feet (330 m³)
• Height: 400ft (121.92m)

The Cheewhat Giant is the largest living Western redcedar in the world and also the largest known tree in the whole of Canada.

The Cheewhat Giant is located in Cheewhat Lake, Vancouver Island, British Columbia. The tree has a trunk volume of 11,500 cubic feet and is 400ft tall - making it one of the tallest trees in the world!

It was discovered by forestry workers in 1957 and was soon after named after the lake it stood beside. The tree became part of Cathedral Grove – a protected forest area on Vancouver Island - in 1973.

Today, tourists can visit this impressive tree and marvel at its size! It really is an incredible sight to behold.

Did you know? Western redcedars are some of the largest conifers in the world. They can live to be over 1000 years old and have been known to reach heights of up to 400ft!

5. Rullah Longatyle – The Largest Eucalyptus Tree in the World

• Location: Mount Compass, Fleurieu Peninsula of South Australia
• Girth: 20.77m

Rullah Longatyle is the largest Eucalyptus tree in the world at approximately 400 years old! It stands tall towering 110ft (33m) above ground level and has a whopping girth of over 20 meters - that's more than 66 feet around!!

The Rullah Longatyle can be found on Mount Compass, Fleurieu Peninsula of South Australia. This eucalyptus giant was named after an aboriginal tribe called "Thalanyji" which means "red kangaroo". The name actually came about due to its resemblance to red kangaroos when swaying in the wind with their large limbs flailing outwards like arms! You may not think so by looking at the picture, but this tree is absolutely massive!

The Gullah Longatyle was discovered in 1988 by a man called Murray Schulz. At first, it was thought to be two trees, but upon closer inspection, it was found that they were actually one large tree! The Rullah Longatyle became part of the Yankalilla National Park in 1990 and attracts many tourists who come to see this impressive giant up close.

Did you know? Eucalyptus trees are some of the tallest flowering plants in the world and can grow up to 400ft tall (122m)! They also have extremely wide girths - some reaching over 33ft (11m) around!

6. Eucalyptus regnans(Two Towers)

• Location: Mountain Ash, Tasmania, Australia
• Height: 321ft (98.41m)
• Girth: 17.37ft (53.05m)

The Two Towers is a Eucalyptus regnans tree located in Mountain Ash, Tasmania. The trees are the tallest flowering plants on Earth and have been growing here for over 500 years!

In 1872, a surveyor called Henry Howden initially measured the trees at 200ft (61m) each. This was then increased to 321ft and 98.41m respectively during an updated measurement in 2010!

The Two Towers can be found within Watagans National Park where visitors are welcome to marvel at these impressive beauties up close. In fact, Tasmania is not only home to the tallest flowering plant on Earth but also has some of Australia's largest eucalyptus trees including the 'El Grande' which stands over 400ft tall!!

Did you know? The Eucalyptus regnans tree - known as "mountain ash" by Australians – belongs to a genus of more than 700 species that are mainly native to Australia! They are some of the tallest flowering plants in the world and can reach heights of up to 321ft (98.41m)! They also have some of the widest girths, with some measuring up to 17.37ft (53.05m) around.

7. Red Creek Fir

• Location: Red Creek, Oregon
• Height: 375ft (114.31m)
• Girth: 17.37ft (53.05m)

The red creek fir is a Douglas Fir tree located in the Red Creek area of Oregon. It is the largest living thing in Oregon and the seventh-largest tree in the world!

The red creek fir was discovered by logger Jerry Freeman who named it after the creek it grew next to. The tree became part of a protected forest reserve in 1983 and has been attracting many tourists since then!

In 2011, a new measurement revealed that the red creek fir had reached a height of 375ft (114.31m), making it taller than any Doug Fir trees known to date! It also has a girth of 17.37ft (53.05m), making it one of the widest trees in the world!

Did you know? The red creek fir was discovered by logger Jerry Freeman who named it after the creek it grew next to. The tree became part of a protected forest reserve in 1983 and has been attracting many tourists since then!

8. Queets Spruce

• Location: Queets River, Washington
• Height: 400ft (121.92m)
• Girth: 19.69ft (60m)

The Queets spruce is a Sitka Spruce tree located in the Queets River of western Washington state. It's not only one of America's largest trees but also its oldest! The exact age is unknown, however, it has been dated at around 500 years old or more! This makes it older than some European countries including England and Scotland!!

In 1994, the Queets spruce was added to Olympic National Park where many visitors come to marvel at its impressive size up close...especially during Autumn when all the needles on the branches turn bright yellow this behemoth really stands out!

The Queets Spruce measures 400ft (121.92m) tall and has a girth of 19.69ft (60m). It is currently the eighth largest tree in the world!

Did you know? The Queets spruce was added to Olympic National Park in 1994 where many visitors come to marvel at its impressive size up close. It measures 400ft (121.92m) tall and has a girth of 19.69ft (60m).

9. Gothmog

• Location: Tasmania, Australia
• Height: 420ft (128.01m)
• Girth: 18.90ft (57m)

The Gothmog is a Eucalyptus regnans tree located in Campbell Town on the island of Tasmania. It's known as one of the few trees in the world with a girth of over 50ft!

In 1872, surveyor Henry Howden measured it as 200ft (61m) tall. This was then increased to 321ft and 98.41m during an updated measurement in 2010 making it one of Australia's tallest trees!!

The Gothmog stands at 420ft (128.01m), which makes it taller than Big Ben and around half its age – this behemoth is thought to have sprouted around 500 years ago! It also has a girth of 18.90ft (57m).

Did you know? The name 'Gotham' comes from Old English for 'Goat home'. Gotham City first appeared on American soil in Detective Comics #27 (May 1939).

10. Lost Monarch Tree - The fifth-largest redwood tree.

• Location: Sierra Nevada, California
• Height: 424ft (129.02m)
• Trunk Volume: 12,514 cu ft (350.91m)
• Girth: 24.38ft (73.49m)

The lost monarch tree is a giant sequoia located in the Sequoia National Park of California. It's one of the most massive trees on Earth and has been growing for over 3000 years!

In 1992, the lost monarch was measured as 424ft (129.02m) tall making it the tallest tree in the world at that time! It also had a girth of 24.38ft (73.49m), making it one of the widest trees in the world too!

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The top 10 deadliest animals on earth | part-two

 THE HONEY BADGER

The honey badger is considered the most fearless and most aggressive animal on earth.

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What is a superconductor?

A superconductor is an element or metallic alloy which, when cooled below a certain threshold temperature, completely loses all its electrical resistance. Thus, superconductors can allow electrical current to flow without any energy loss due to ideally zero resistance. But in practice, an ideal superconductor is very hard to manufactured. Hence very high conductivity materials made by the above principle, so named as superconductors. There are huge applications of superconductors.

 Superconductors are indeed perfect conductor that has zero resistance. It doesn’t just have very low resistance and conducts electricity well, but it has absolutely ZERO resistance and conducts electricity perfectly with no losses at all. In theory if you had a super conductor material it could be infinitely thin and infinitely long. Imagine a thin strand of 30 gauge wire carrying all the electricity used in the USA. That is possible with a super conductor.

Super conductor behavior is typically seen only near absolute zero which is really cold at -273 degrees centigrade which is 460 degrees below zero Fahrenheit. Better put on your long underwear for that. Minor detail, you can get close to absolute zero but so far it’s been impossible to get all the way to absolute zero. Fortunately some materials become super conductors at achievable temperatures that are slightly above absolute detail.

So why haven’t we seen super conductors in practical applications? Well, you need an electrical insulator and you need a thermal insulator around the super conductor. So far there isn’t much luck finding a perfect insulator, so a little heat leaches through any insulation, so must continually cool the material. You can cool a super conductor material in the lab but it isn’t practical across spans of distances like power lines. As usual, the devil is in the detail.

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How do geckos stick upside down?

 Geckos has the ability to scale smooth surfaces​—even skittering across a smooth ceiling—​without slipping! How does this amazing little lizard do it?

Geckos can stick to surfaces because their bulbous toes are covered in hundreds of tiny microscopic hairs called setae.Each seta splits off into hundreds of even smaller bristles called spatulae. Scientists already knew that the tufts of tiny hairs get so close to the contours in walls and ceilings that the vander-waals force.

Each toe of the gecko contains ridges that have thousands of hairlike protrusions. Each protrusion, in turn, has hundreds of microscopic filament  s. The intermolecular forces (called van der Waals forces) that emanate from these filaments are sufficient to hold the lizard’s weight​—even when it is scurrying upside down along a glass surface!

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Black holes | Definition, formation, and facts

Througout the field of cosmology, black holes has stood out to be among the most fascinating things ever studied about our universe.  The idea that a super massive and dense object exist in space where  gravity pulls so strong that it crushes and sucks anything across is path has continued to marvel astronomers and astrophysicists over the past years. Most famously, the winners for the 2020 noble prize award in the physics categories were all involved in various discoveries about  black holes.

So one may ask, what's really a black hole and how does it work?

Definition of a black hole

A black hole is a region in space where the force of gravity  pulls so strong that it prevent the escape of even the fastest of particles. Not even electromagnetic radiation such as light  can escape  it. 

A black hole's gravitational pull is so intense that no matter of any form can escape it once inside a certain region, called the event horizon.

So why are they called "black holes" anyway?

Ironically, black holes are not inherently black, neither are they conical spinning holes in the universe as some images may depict. The facts remains that the gravitational pull being experience on a black holes is so strong that it ends up crushing and sucking(like a hole), any matter found near it surrounding, including any rays of light.  When all light rays directed at a black hole are all sucked up to the last photon, what will be left is total darkness at the center. That is why black holes are often depicted as black looking monster tonadoes in space. 

So a clear answer to why black holes are so named is simply because:

"on a black hole, gravity pulls so extreme that it ends up sucking(like a hole) any matter found near it territory, including any traces of light rays, making it appear as black at the center"

Image depicting a star being pulled by a black hole's instense gravity

So what makes a black hole's gravity pulls so strong?

Being called a "hole" doesn't mean  it's an empty space. It in fact a huge volume of matter squeezed and packed into a very small radius. A perfect analogy taken from the NASA website says it will be like squeezing a star ten times more massive than the sun into a sphere approximately the size of New York City. The result would turn out to produce an extremely dense structure in space, one in which it mass will cause an infinite curvature in space-time and it gravity, so strong that no matter can escape it immerse pull.

When the statement "sucks any matter found near in vicinity" is often made anywhere when talking about black holes, that shouldn't make one try to visualize black holes as cosmic vacuum cleaners that swallow up any matter close to it.  Although it seems quite easier to try to view from this perspective, but the truth remains that, black holes doesn't actually swallow matters to itself (as would vacuum cleaners), their gravity just smear and pulls objects towards it center. These objects in turn, due to being acted upon by series of chaotic forces will be spewed out in some way. Thus, it will be more accurate to think of a giant tonadoe when thinking of a black hole, but this time with a drawing force caused by gravity, not by rotating wind.

The event horizon

The center(or the core) of a black hole is where the extreme gravitational pull takes place, and this region is associated with an event horizon. On a black hole, an event horizon is the boundary where the speed needed to escape a black hole's extreme gravitational pull will exceed the speed of light. That means that an object needs to travel faster than light to escape a black hole's event horizon.

But according to Einstein's special theory relativity, nothing can travel faster through space than the speed of light. This means a black hole's event horizon is essentially the point from which absolutely nothing can 

return. 

Formation of black holes

The idea behind the formation of black holes were first predicted by Einstein's field equations for the general theory of relativity. The prediction was that if an object is sufficiently massive or dense,(like a neutron star) there will become a point that it will collapse in upon itself and then become even more denser  that it creates an infinite distortion in space-time, resulting in an object with a very strong gravitational influence on nearby objects. The object having such property were later termed as a black hole.

In accordance to that, it was thus observed that when a neutron star(a very dense, heavy type of star) finally becomes too massive and its gravity becomes too much to handle, the star collapses on itself and explodes leaving behind a black hole. 

Black holes were never seen or observed by scientists with ordinary space telescopes that were used to detect light and other space radiations.  Even after years of studying, research, argument, etc. It continued to remain a hypothetical prediction.

 Astronomers and astrophysicists however we're only able to deduce the presence of a black hole on space by detecting it gravitational effect on nearby stars and objects. For example, when a star or other interstellar objects crosses a black hole, they will be teared apart and drawn inward  Not long after the invention of the event horizon telescope that astronomers were now able to  photograph the first image of a black hole.

Image showing the first actual photo of a black hole and it shadow, taken by the event horizon telescope at the center of galaxy M87.

Historical prediction of black holes

In 1915,  Einstein published his general theory of relativity in which he showed that gravity is not an attractive  force existing between two masses as Newton said, but gravity is a function of space-time curvature. He included series of equations along with his theories to justify his claims. These equations are popularly known as "Einstein's field equations"(EFE). These equations related how the geometry of space-time affected other parameters like mass, energy, momentum, and stress. In short terms, the equations summaries the relationship between matter and the geometry of space-time. Due to the non-linear nature of Einstein's equations, Einstein himself assume that they were unsolvable. Lots of effort were made by other mathematicians and physicists in solving the field equations and understanding it solutions.

Not long after, in January 1916 Karl Schwarzschild a German physicist and astronomer produced the first exact solution to the field equations. He used Einstein's field equations to calculate the outcome of the gravitational effect of a single spherical body, such as a star.

The first case was that : If a mass of a star is neither very large or highly concentrated(made to be very dense), the gravitational influence of the star on other nearby matter will just be the same as that given by Newton's theory of gravity. That is to say that the gravitational force of attraction of the star will be given by F=GMm/R². Thus, Newton's theory was not incorrect, rather it justifies general relativity under certain conditions.

For a weak gravitational field, the result of general relativity does not differ significantly from Newton laws of gravitation. But for intense gravitational field, (i.e one cause by a large or extremely dense mass generating instense curvature in space time) the result diverge, and general relativity has been proven to predict the correct result.

The second case was the most important one, as it predicted an extraordinary object in space. The second case was that : If a body of mass were concentrated or confined within a vanishingly small volume, the resulting calculation shows that there will come to occur a point of infinite curvature and density - a singularity- in at the center, where gravity will become so strong that nothing pulled into the surrounding region can ever leave. Even light cannot escape.

Yes, black holes were first predicted by Einstein's general law of relativity. But as technologies advanced, we were able to observe our first actual black hole back in 2016.  It was thus proving Einstein's prediction to be correct.  

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Electroplating and it applications

Electroplating involves the process of coating the surface of one metal with another metal through electrochemical means. Electroplating is often done with the primary purpose  of  preventing rusting and improving the appearance of the plated object.

During electroplating, objects (mostly metals) are often coated with a layer of another metal by electrolysis. Example, the coating of knives and forks with silver to make it look shiny and stainless, and cheap jewelries are often coated with a layer of gold or silver. Electrolysis is simply the separation of a compound into it chemical parts by passing electric current through it molten a solution of it salt.

In the electrolytic cell, direct current is used to deposit a thin layer of a metal onto the surface of another metal, this is usually achieved by reducing the metal cations(i.e the positive ions) at the cathode(negative electrode) in order to form a solid metal precipitate on it. The metal to be electroplated is often used as the cathode. The anode is the pure metal to be deposited on the object. While the electrolyte is a solution of the soluble salt of the pure metal used as the anode.

How electroplating works

For us to grasp the full concept of electroplating, let's use a practical example of gold coating.

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Polar and non-polar molecules - meaning and differences

For example, an electron has a negative polarity e- that means that it has a negative electric charge. An ion of sodium posseses a positive polarity Na+ meaning it positively charged. Atoms and molecules has both positive and negative electric charge, their polarity only comes because one state of electric charge is greater than the other. For example, an atom can be negatively charged. This means that it has more negative charge carriers (electrons) than positive charge carriers (protons). This makes it has a negative polarity. Same goes for positively charged atoms. Some atoms and molecules can be neutral (having no electric charge). 

Polarity is just a state of having a positive and also a negative electric charge, especially in the case of magnetic or electrical poles. That phenomenon of seperation of electric charges into positive and negative is what is defined by the term polarity.

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The 4 fundamental forces of nature

 A force by definition is a push or pull that an object exerts on another, causing it to experience motion or deformity. Everything in the universe experience some kind of force that react with it in every second. These forces can be grouped in four major fundamental units and termed as "the four fundamental forces of nature".

The four fundamental forces of nature are the most major forces that govern the behavior of everything in the universe and they cannot be further divided into any other basic forces. They can also be termed as the fundamental interactions. The are the simplest unit of force in which other forces present in the universe are built on.

These forces include:

• Gravitational force
• Electromagnetic force
• Weak nuclear force
• Strong nuclear force

These forces can be either short range or long range, depending on the number of bodies they act on. Each of these forces will be briefly explained in this post.

Gravity

In the elementary stage, gravity was defined as the force that tends to pull all object towards the center of the earth. But the earth is not the only system that has or experience the influence of gravity, in theory, everything in the universe having mass will experience gravity.

Gravity is thus a force that that attract two or more objects having mass together. Gravity surrounds us, it responsible for pulling all objects having mass towards earth's center example when you throw a ball  into the air, it returns to you because of the earth's gravity. The earth is surrounded by a gravitational field and this force of gravity on the ball is what pulls it back to the earth.

Gravity is also what binds planets in an orbit around the sun. Gravity by nature is too weak to be noticed unless at least one of the masses is very large. As described by Einstein's general law of relativity, gravity comes as a result of space-time curvature. If an objects has more mass, it will create more curve in space-time and consequently will have more gravity. That is exactly why the gravitational attraction between planet's orbital around the sun appears to be stronger because the sun has a relatively greater mass, creating more space-time curvature(as Einstein explained) and thus more attractive force.

Newton was the first scientist that discovered the force of gravity while watching a falling apple from a tree and asked why the apple fell. He later postulated his laws universal gravitational law, stating that the force of attraction between two bodies of mass m1 and m2 is inversely proportional to the square of their distance R between their centers and is directly proportional to the product of their mass.

This can be represented mathematically as:

F= Gm1m2/R^2

Where 

G= the universal gravitational constant

m1 & m2 = the masses of the two bodies

R = the distance between them

From this equation, we can calculate the gravitational force of the earth to be equals to 9.807m/s^2.

Overview of gravitational force

- It are the weakest among  the four fundamental forces, having an infinite strength of 1.

-It always tend to attract objects, it never repels them.

- It cannot be modified, absorbed or shielded against.

- It has an infinite range, thus it capable of holding planets, stars and galaxies

- It hypothetically uses gravitons as the mediators

- Mass acts as the main source. 

Electromagnetism

The word "electromagnetism" contains two terms, namely electricity and magnetism. It was long thought that electricity and magnetism  were separate forces, ideas changed as Einstein's law of relativity describes electricity and magnetism not as separated forces, but as inter-related phenomena. Electricity gives rise to magnetism and vise-versa. 

Electromagnetic force is a force that acts between electrically charged particles (electrons, protons, ions, photons) and it's so named as it exhibit  both the property of electricity and magnetism. 

It is the force that causes like charges to repel each other and unlike charges to attract each other. These phenomenon of attraction and repulsion is what binds electrons close to their orbitals, as they are attracted to the positively charged neutrons in the neucleus.

Light also is an electromagnetic wave, that undergoes continuous oscillation from electric field to magnetic field at right angle to each other.

Electromagnetic induction is also a phenomenon of electromagnetism, where electricity can be generated using  changing magnetic field across a coil of conductor.

So as we can see, electromagnetic force plays a vital role in our day to day living.

Overview of electromagnetic force

-  It is the force that acts upon charged particles, and it  contains both electrical and magnetic properties.

- It is the second strongest fundamental force of  nature, having an infinite strength of 10^36

- The also posses an infinite range.

- Photons acts as their mediator

- They travel at the speed of light(300 000 km/s)

Weak nuclear force

The weak nuclear force or weak interaction is the force responsible for nuclear changes in the sub-atomic particles, these changes includes; nuclear fusion (which is the combination of atomic nucei), nuclear fission(which is the disintegration of atomic nucleus), beta decay( process of converting neutrons to protons and vise-versa) , and electron capture. 

These nuclear changes are very vital for the working of the universe and even life on earth. For example, nuclear fusion is responsible for generating energy from the sun and other stars, where hydrogen is converted into helium.

Overview of the weak nuclear forces

- It is responsible for nuclear changes in sub-atomic particles

- It is the third strongest fundamental forces of nature having an infinite strength of 10^25

- They occur at a very short range as it only acts upon sub-atomic particles. Hence, it has a infinite range of 10^-18

- W and Z bosons acts as the mediator

Strong nuclear force

The strong nuclear force is by far the most strongest and complex force in the universe. It only act upon sub-atomic particles in the nucleus. The atomic nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons, the protons possesses a positive charge while the neutrons are electrically neutral. The protons which were supposed to repel each other because of their like charges are tightly binded together in the nucleus by the action of a force called the strong nuclear force.

The electromagnetic force couldn't possibly keep the nucleus of an atom together, because it is much too weak, and the protons would simply repel one another and fly, because they are all positively charged, and we know that two positively charged particles won't attract each other. So there needs to be a stronger force, and that just happens to be the Strong Force. This force is also responsible for binding Quarks and Gluons into Protons and Neutrons.

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Corrosion - Definition and types

Lots of metals are seen to change their colors, textures, and densities when exposed to air and moisture for an extended period of time. The picture above shows a car that was once new and shiny, but it has been broken down and roughened by reacting with components of the atmosphere. Another picture below shows a decaying and rough looking copper pipe that has experience partial degradation. In time, both metals will all be flakes.

 This two scenarios obviously shows that there is some form of invisible chemical reaction that leads to the irreversible damage of these metals when exposed to an open environment for a long time. Such chemical process is known as corrosion.

Definition of corrosion 

Corrosion is a process involving a metal being reconverted from it refined form to a  more chemically stable form such as oxides, hydroxides or sulfides  by natural means. 

During the process of corrosion, a metal is permanently and irreversibly degraded and broken down due to chemically and/ or electrochemically reacting with it environment.

Why does corrosion happens?

Metals are often gotten from their respective ores. Before any metal can be useful to create anything, it must first be extracted and refined from it ore. This ores can exist in form of oxides, sulfides, or salt. For example, iron(III)oxide or hematite is a common ore where iron is extracted, likewise in copper(I)sulfide for copper. These ores are most stable form in which  these metals can exist, and they always tend to remain in this stable forms.  So when extracted or refined for industrial purposes, they are less stable and they will look for any possible reaction in order to revert to stability.

Corrosion happens as the refined metals attempt to revert to their more stable raw or ore form.

Factors affecting corrosion

The reaction that causes corrosion can lead a metal to go back to it oxide or sulfide state when it react with an environments that contains traces of these compounds. The following are some factors influencing the rate or corrosion.

• Position of the metal in the electrochemical cell

The more reactive metals are easily corroded because when left exposed, it will have a higher tendency to to react with other elements like oxygen to form basic oxides. So the reactivity of the metal affects the corrosion

• Air or Oxygen.

It is the most important thing for corrosion i.e. oxidation of metal. More the exposure of metal to the air, more it will corrode. Most of the metals are corroded by the oxygen bust some of them by other gases like Copper by CO2, Silver by H2S, etc. For e.g. Copper develops a green colour coating on its surface due to the presence of air , moisture and carbon dioxide forms basic green malachite Cu(OH)2.CuCO3.

• Moisture

Moisture lead to formation of coordinate complex between metal oxide and water molecules like (Fe2O3. nH2O), etc. Moisture is present in the form of Water Vapour or capillary water in soils.

• Presence of other chemicals

Sometimes metals are corroded by the action of certain other chemicals like acids and bases. 

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How the electric eel generate voltage

 

Electric eels are generate electricity in their tail muscles. When they flex certain muscles, they create an electric potential between the anterior and posterior parts of their tail. The anterior part of the tail is positive and the posterior part of the tail is negative.

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Metal ores - Meaning and examples

Ever wonder how and where metals like iron, copper, and tin are gotten from? You might have an idea that they are extracted from the earth crust, but does that mean that they just directly pull out metals from the earth crust, wash them clean, and here they go using it to make cars and buildings...? The answer lies in the content of minerals deposited on the earth's crust, mountains, and rocks. These minerals comes in different forms and chemical compositions, aggregated together as just one type of mineral called ores.

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covalent bond - definition, properties and examples

 A covalent bond can be define as a chemical bond which results when electrons are shared by two atoms. It only takes place between two non-metal atoms. 

When two atoms involved in a chemical bond formation do this through the sharing of the electrons in their outermost valence shell to achieve octet of electrons, covalent bonds are produced. Each covalent bond is formed from a pair of electrons, each of which is donated by each of the atoms involved in the bond formation. 

We will both explain the sharing of electrons in both non-metal elements and non-metal compounds.

Covalent bonds in non-metal elements

1. Hydrogen  

A hydrogen atom has only one shell, with one electron. The shell is capable of accommodating up to two electrons. When two hydrogen atoms get close enough, their shells overlap and then they can share electrons. Like this:

So each has gained a full shell of two electrons, like helium atoms. Each hydrogen atom has a positive nucleus. Both nuclei attract the shared electron - and this strong force of attraction holds the two atoms together. This force of attraction is called a covalent bond. A single covalent bond is formed when atoms share two electrons. 

The two bonded hydrogen atoms above form a molecule. A molecule is a group of atoms held together by covalent bonds. Since it is made up of molecules, hydrogen is a molecular element. Its formula is H2. The 2 tells you there are 2 hydrogen atoms in each

molecule.

2. Oxygen

An oxygen atom has six outer electrons, so needs a share in two more. So

two oxygen atoms share two electrons each, giving molecules with the

formula O2. Each atom now has a stable outer shell of eight electrons:

Since the oxygen atoms share two pairs of electrons, the bond between them is called a double bond. You can show it like this: O5O.

3. Chlorine

A chlorine atom needs a share in one more electron, to obtain a stable outer shell of eight electrons. So two chlorine atoms bond covalently like this:

Since only one pair of electrons is shared, the bond between the atoms is

called a single covalent bond, or just a single bond. You can show it in a

short way by a single line, like this: Cl2Cl.

Covalent bond in non-metal compounds

In a molecular compound, atoms of different elements share electrons.

The compounds are called covalent compounds. Here are three examples.

1. Hydrogen chloride(HCL)

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The chlorine atom shares one electron with the hydrogen atom. Both now have a stable arrangement of electrons in their outer shells: 2 for hydrogen (like the helium atom) and 8 for chlorine (like the other noble gas atoms). 

2. Water(H2O)

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The oxygen atom shares electrons with the two hydrogen atoms. All now have a stable arrangement of electrons in their outer shells: 2 for hydrogen and 8 for oxygen. 

3. Methane(CH4)

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The carbon atom shares electrons with four hydrogen atoms. All now have a stable arrangement of electrons in their outer shells: 2 for hydrogen and 8 for carbon.

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